Quality and Reliability of Technical Systems

3.1.4 Manufacturing Quality.- 3.1.5 Long-Term Behavior of Performance Parameters.- 3.1.6 Reliability.- 3.2 Qualification Tests for Complex Electronic Components.- 3.2.1 Electrical Test of Complex ICs.- 3.2.2 Characterization of Complex ICs.- 3.2.3 Environmental and Special Tests of Complex ICs.- 3.2.4 Reliability Tests.- 3.3 Failure Modes, Failure Mech., and Failure Analysis of Electronic Components.- 3.3.1 Failure Modes of Electronic Components.- 3.3.2 Failure Mechanisms of Electronic Components.- 3.3.3 Failure Analysis of Electronic Components.- 3.4 Qualification Tests for Electronic Assemblies.- 4 Maintainability Analysis.- 4.1 Maintenance, Maintainability.- 4.2 Maintenance Concept.- 4.2.1 Fault Detection and Isolation.- 4.2.2 Equipment and System Partitioning.- 4.2.3 User Documentation.- 4.2.4 Training of Operating and Maintenance Personnel.- 4.2.5 User Logistical Support.- 4.3 Maintainability Aspects in Design Reviews.- 4.4 Predicted Maintainability.- 4.4.1 Calculation of MTTRS.- 4.4.2 Calculation of MTTPMS.- 4.5 Basic Models for Spare Part Provisioning.- 4.5.1 Centralized Logistical Support, Nonrepairable Spare Parts.- 4.5.2 Decentralized Logistical Support, Nonrepairable Spare Parts.- 4.5.3 Repairable Spare Parts.- 4.5.4 Cost Considerations.- 5 Design Guidelines for Reliability, Maintainability, and Software Quality.- 5.1 Design Guidelines for Reliability.- 5.1.1 Derating.- 5.1.2 Cooling.- 5.1.3 Moisture.- 5.1.4 Electromagnetic Compatibility, ESD Protection.- 5.1.5 Components and Assemblies.- 5.1.5.1 Component Selection.- 5.1.5.2 Component Use.- 5.1.5.3 PCB and Assembly Design.- 5.1.5.4 PCB and Assembly Manufacturing.- 5.1.5.5 Storage and Transportation.- 5.1.6 Particular Guidelines for IC Design and Manufacturing.- 5.2 Design Guidelines for Maintainability.- 5.2.1 General Guidelines.- 5.2.2 Testability.- 5.2.3 Accessibility, Exchangeability.- 5.2.4 Operation, Adjustment.- 5.3 Design Guidelines for Software Quality.- 5.3.1 Guidelines for Software Defect Prevention.- 5.3.2 Configuration Management.- 5.3.3 Guidelines for Software Testing.- 5.3.4 Software Quality Growth Models.- 6 Reliability and Availability of Repairable Systems.- 6.1 Introduction and General Assumptions.- 6.2 One-Item Structure.- 6.2.1 One-Item Structure New at Time t = 0.- 6.2.1.1 Reliability Function.- 6.2.1.2 Point Availability.- 6.2.1.3 Average Availability.- 6.2.1.4 Interval Reliability.- 6.2.1.5 Special Kinds of Availability.- 6.2.2 One-Item Structure New at Time t = 0 and with Constant Failure Rate ?.- 6.2.3 One-Item Structure with Arbitrary Initial Conditions at Time t = 0.- 6.2.4 Asymptotic Behavior.- 6.2.5 Steady-State Behavior.- 6.3 Systems without Redundancy.- 6.3.1 Series Structure with Constant Failure and Repair Rates.- 6.3.2 Series Structure with Constant Failure and Arbitrary Repair Rates.- 6.3.3 Series Structure with Arbitrary Failure and Repair Rates.- 6.4 1-out-of-2 Redundancy.- 6.4.1 l-out-of-2 Redundancy with Constant Failure and Repair Rates.- 6.4.2 l-out-of-2 Redundancy with Constant Failure and Arbitrary Repair Rates.- 6.4.3 l-out-of-2 Redundancy with Const. Failure Rate only in the Reserve State.- 6.5 k-out-of-n Redundancy.- 6.5.1 k-out-of-n Warm Redundancy Constant Failure and Repair Rates.- 6.5.2 k-out-of-n Active Redundancy with Const. Failure and Arbitrary Repair Rates.- 6.6 Simple Series/Parallel Structures.- 6.7 Approximate Expressions for Large Series/Parallel Structures.- 6.7.1 Introduction.- 6.7.2 Application to a Practical Example.- 6.8 Systems with Complex Structure.- 6.8.1 General Considerations.- 6.8.2 Computer Aided Reliability and Availability Prediction.- 6.9 Influence of Imperfect Switching.- 6.10 Influence of Preventive Maintenance.- 6.10.1 One-item Repairable Structure.- 6.10.2 l-out-of-2 Active Redundancy with Hidden Failures in one Element.- 7 Statistical Quality Control and Reliability Tests.- 7.1 Statistical Quality Control.- 7.1.1 Estimation of a Defective Probability p.- 7.1.2 Simple Two-sided Sampling Plans for the Demonstration of a Probability p.- 7.1.2.1 Simple Two-sided Sampling Plans.- 7.1.2.2 Sequential Tests.- 7.1.3 One-sided Sampling Plans for the Demonstration of a Probability p.- 7.2 Statistical Reliability Tests.- 7.2.1 Estimation and Demonstration of a Reliability or Availability Value.- 7.2.2 Estimation and Demonstration of a Constant Failure Rate ? or MTBF = 1/?.- 7.2.2.1 Estimation of a constant Failure Rate ? or of MTBF = 1/?.- 1.2.22 Simple Two-sided Test for the Demonstration of ? or MTBF = 1/?.- 12.23 Simple One-sided Test for the Demonstration of ? or MTBF = 1/?.- 7.3 Statistical Maintainability Tests.- 7.3.1 Estimation of an MTTR.- 7.3.2 Demonstration of an MTTR.- 7.4 Accelerated Testing.- 7.5 Goodness-of-fit Tests.- 7.5.1 Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test.- 7.5.2 Chi-square Test.- 8 Quality and Reliability Assurance During the Production Phase.- 8.1 Basic Activities.- 8.2 Testing and Screening of Electronic Components.- 8.2.1 Testing of Electronic Components.- 8.2.2 Screening of Electronic Components.- 8.3 Testing and Screening of Electronic Assemblies.- 8.4 Test and Screening Strategies, Economic Aspects.- 8.4.1 Basic Considerations.- 8.4.2 Quality Cost Optimization.- 8.4.3 Procedure to handle first deliveries.- 8.5 Reliability Growth.- A1 Terms and Definitions.- A2 Quality and Reliability Standards.- A2.1 Introduction.- A2.2 Requirements in the Industrial Field.- A2.3 Requirements in the Aerospace, Defense, and Nuclear Fields.- A3 Definition and Realization of Quality and Reliability Requirements.- A3.1 Definition of Quality and Reliability Requirements.- A3.2 Realization of Quality and Reliabilty Requirements.- A3.3 Elements of a Quality and Reliability Assurance Program.- A3.3.1 Project Organization, Planning, and Scheduling.- A3.3.2 Quality and Reliability Requirements.- A3.3.3 Reliability and Safety Analyses.- A3.3.4 Selection and Qualific. of Components, Materials, and Manuf. Processes.- A3.3.5 Configuration Management.- A3.3.6 Quality Tests.- A3.3.7 Quality Data Reporting System.- A4 Checklists for Design Reviews.- A4.1 System Design Review.- A4.2 Preliminary Design Reviews (Assembly Level).- A4.3 Critical Design Review (System Level).- A5 Requirements for Quality Data Reporting Systems.- A6 Basic Probability Theory.- A6.1 Field of Events.- A6.2 Concept of Probability.- A6.3 Conditional Probability, Independence.- A6.4 Fundamental Rules of Probability Theory.- A6.4.1 Addition Theorem for Mutually Exclusive Events.- A6.4.2 Multiplication Theorem for Two Independent Events.- A6.4.3 Multiplication Theorem for Arbitrary Events.- A6.4.4 Addition Theorem for Arbitrary Events.- A6.4.5 Theorem of Total Probability.- A6.5 Random Variables, Distribution Functions.- A6.6 Numerical Parameters of Random Variables.- A6.6.1 Expected Value (Mean).- A6.6.2 Variance.- A6.6.3 Modal Value, Quantile, Median.- A6.7 Multidimensional Random Variables, Conditional Distributions.- A6.8 Numerical Parameters of Random Vectors.- A6.8.1 Covariance Matrix, Correlation Coefficient.- A6.8.2 Further Properties of Expected Value and Variance.- A6.10 Distribution Functions used in Reliability Analyses.- A6.10.1 Exponential Distribution.- A6.10.2 Weibull Distribution.- A6.10.4 Normal Distribution.- A6.10.5 Lognormal Distribution.- A6.10.6 Uniform Distribution.- A6.10.7 Binomial Distribution.- A6.10.8 Poisson Distribution.- A6.10.9 Geometric Distribution.- A6.10.10 Hypergeometric Distribution.- A6.11 Limit Theorems.- A6.11.1 Law of Large Numbers.- A6.11.2 Central Limit Theorem.- A7 Basic Stochastic Process Theory.- A7.1 Introduction.- A7.2 Renewal Processes.- A7.2.1 Renewal Function, Renewal Density.- A7.2.2 Recurrence Times.- A7.2.3 Asymptotic Behavior.- A7.2.4 Stationary Renewal Processes.- A7.2.5 Poisson Processes.- A7.3 Alternating Renewal Processes.- A7.4 Regenerative Processes.- A7.5 Markov Processes with Finitely Many States.- A7.5.1 Markov Chains with Finitely Many States.- A7.5.2 Markov Processes with Finitely Many States.- A7.5.3 State Probabilities and Sojourn Times in a Given Class of States.- A7.5.3.1 Method of Differential Equations.- A7.5.3.2 Method of Integral Equations.- A7.5.3.3 Stationary State and Asymptotic Behavior.- A7.5.4 Birth and Death Process.- A7.6 Semi-Markov Processes with Finitely Many States.- A7.7 Semi-regenerative Processes.- A7.8 Nonregenerative Stochastic Processes.- A8 Basic Mathematical Statistics.- A8.1 Empirical Methods.- A8.1.1 Empirical Distribution Function.- A8.1.2 Empirical Moments and Quantiles.- A8.1.3 Further Applications of the Empirical Distribution Function.- A8.2 Parameter Estimation.- A8.2.1 Point Estimation.- A8.2.2 Interval Estimation.- A8.3 Testing Statistical Hypotheses.- A8.3.1.1 Simple Two-sided Sampling Plan.- A8.3.1.2 Sequential Test.- A8.3.1.3 Simple One-sided Sampling Plan.- A9 Tables and Charts.- A9.1 Standard Normal Distribution.- A9.5 Table for the Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test.- A9.6 Gamma function.- A9.7 Laplace Transform.- A9.8 Probability Charts.- A9.8.1 Lognormal Probability Chart.- A9.8.2 Weibull Probability Chart.- A9.8.3 Normal Probability Chart.- Acronyms.- References.